Articles | Volume 2-oae2023
https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-2-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-2-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
27 Nov 2023
| OAE Guide 2023 | Chapter 2
| 27 Nov 2023 | OAE Guide 2023 | Chapter 2
Seawater carbonate chemistry considerations for ocean alkalinity enhancement research: theory, measurements, and calculations
Faculty of Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
Lennart T. Bach
Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
Andrew G. Dickson
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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Cited
47 citations as recorded by crossref.
- A tracer study for the development of in-water monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) of ship-based ocean alkalinity enhancement A. Subhas et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-5511-2025
- Research trends in ocean alkalinity enhancement as an ocean-based negative emission technology A. Suzuki et al. https://doi.org/10.5928/kaiyou.35.4_85
- The additionality problem of ocean alkalinity enhancement L. Bach https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-261-2024
- Responses of microbial metabolic rates to non-equilibrated silicate- versus calcium-based ocean alkalinity enhancement L. Marín-Samper et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5707-2024
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement in an estuary M. Ho et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1665329
- Mesocosm experiments in ocean alkalinity enhancement research U. Riebesell et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-6-2023
- The effects of elevated seawater pH and total alkalinity following dosing of sodium hydroxide in Calanus finmarchicus C. Murray et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsag057
- Electrochemical seawater carbon capture for durable carbon storage: alkalinity modulation, interfacial ion transport and carbonate mineralization Q. Xie et al. https://doi.org/10.1039/D6EE03837A
- Alkalinity enhancement with sodium hydroxide in coastal ocean waters C. Wynn-Edwards et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31606-w
- Assessing the impacts of simulated ocean alkalinity enhancement on viability and growth of nearshore species of phytoplankton J. Oberlander et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-499-2025
- A cost-effective approach to water treatments in Bangladesh for domestic and agricultural uses with atmospheric pressure air plasma A. Begum et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622515.2025.2520583
- The carbon dioxide removal potential of cement and lime kiln dust via ocean alkalinity enhancement G. Flipkens et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-399-2026
- Removal of dissolved inorganic carbon from seawater for climate mitigation: potential marine ecosystem impacts G. Hooper et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1528951
- A high-resolution nested model to study the effects of alkalinity additions in Halifax Harbour, a mid-latitude coastal fjord A. Laurent et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-115-2026
- Surface area and Ω-aragonite oversaturation as controls of the runaway precipitation process in ocean alkalinity enhancement N. Suitner et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-3965-2026
- Early life stages of fish under ocean alkalinity enhancement in coastal plankton communities S. Goldenberg et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4521-2024
- Contribution of ultrafine particles to alkalinity in a limestone‐treated waterbody T. Schwemmer et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/lom3.70089
- Investigating the effect of silicate- and calcium-based ocean alkalinity enhancement on diatom silicification A. Ferderer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2777-2024
- The alkalinity generation potential of olivine and oyster shell for laboratory experiments: testing the effects of ocean alkalinity enhancement C. Miller & F. Pernet https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/adf0cd
- Dynamic and mechanistic evaluation of atmospheric seawater scrubbing for multicomponent biogas upgrading at pilot scale N. Raybut et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2026.179036
- An assessment of ocean alkalinity enhancement using aqueous hydroxides: kinetics, efficiency, and precipitation thresholds M. Ringham et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3551-2024
- Effects of pH-equilibrated ocean alkalinization on macro-benthic calcifiers: A mesocosm study from the port of La Spezia (Italy) D. Calvi et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2026.120198
- Review and syntheses: Ocean alkalinity enhancement and carbon dioxide removal through marine enhanced rock weathering using olivine L. Geerts et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-355-2025
- Natural analogs to ocean alkalinity enhancement A. Subhas et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-8-2023
- Technical note: Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement Pelagic Impact Intercomparison Project (OAEPIIP) L. Bach et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3665-2024
- Assessment framework to predict sensitivity of marine calcifiers to ocean alkalinity enhancement – identification of biological thresholds and importance of precautionary principle N. Bednaršek et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-473-2025
- Electrodeposition of Carbon‐Trapping Minerals in Seawater for Variable Electrochemical Potentials and Carbon Dioxide Injections N. Devi et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202400943
- Metrological concepts applied to Total Alkalinity measurements in seawater: reference materials, inter-laboratory comparison and uncertainty budget G. Capitaine et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-75-2026
- Field experiments in ocean alkalinity enhancement research T. Cyronak et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-7-2023
- Carbon fixation of a temperate plankton community in response to calcium- and silicate-based Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement using air-sea gas exchange measurements J. Schneider et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-137-2026
- Stability of alkalinity in the land-ocean transition zone: a geochemical CDR perspective for the Elbe River, Germany M. Tian et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/adeeab
- Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Spectroscopic Investigation of the Hydration, Dynamic, and Dielectric Properties of the {Na2CO3–H2O} System at 298.15 K across Various Concentrations A. Lahmidi et al. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.5c05381
- Seawater carbonate chemistry based carbon dioxide removal: towards commonly agreed principles for carbon monitoring, reporting, and verification P. Halloran et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1487138
- Assessing the technical aspects of ocean-alkalinity-enhancement approaches M. Eisaman et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-3-2023
- Novel field trial for ocean alkalinity enhancement using electrochemically derived aqueous alkalinity A. Savoie et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenve.2025.1641277
- Determining the net influence of biological processes on aqueous hydroxide-based ocean alkalinity enhancement: a mesocosm approach D. Fucich et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1652680
- Interactions between ocean alkalinity enhancement and phytoplankton in an Earth system model M. Seifert et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-5897-2025
- Alkalinity enrichment stimulates calcification and linear extension in Acropora cervicornis K. Cooke et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-44817-6
- Mineral formation during shipboard ocean alkalinity enhancement experiments in the North Atlantic M. Hashim et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-7149-2025
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement reduces silica ballasting during export due to amplified dissolution P. Suessle et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-4691-2026
- Effects of ocean alkalinity enhancement on plankton in the Equatorial Pacific J. Guo et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02248-7
- Monitoring, reporting, and verification for ocean alkalinity enhancement D. Ho et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-12-2023
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement approaches and the predictability of runaway precipitation processes: results of an experimental study to determine critical alkalinity ranges for safe and sustainable application scenarios N. Suitner et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4587-2024
- Perspectives on Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal from the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network H. Findlay et al. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2025.e308
- Comparative life cycle assessment of CO2 removal solutions, including ocean liming, based on different energy sources and carbon storage methods F. Campo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2026.104742
- Modelling considerations for research on ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE) K. Fennel et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-9-2023
- FIELD STUDY ON CARBON DIOXIDE UPTAKE OF WASTE LEACHATE AT COASTAL LANDFILL SITES K. NOSHO et al. https://doi.org/10.2208/jscejj.24-00178
47 citations as recorded by crossref.
- A tracer study for the development of in-water monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) of ship-based ocean alkalinity enhancement A. Subhas et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-5511-2025
- Research trends in ocean alkalinity enhancement as an ocean-based negative emission technology A. Suzuki et al. https://doi.org/10.5928/kaiyou.35.4_85
- The additionality problem of ocean alkalinity enhancement L. Bach https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-261-2024
- Responses of microbial metabolic rates to non-equilibrated silicate- versus calcium-based ocean alkalinity enhancement L. Marín-Samper et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-5707-2024
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement in an estuary M. Ho et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1665329
- Mesocosm experiments in ocean alkalinity enhancement research U. Riebesell et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-6-2023
- The effects of elevated seawater pH and total alkalinity following dosing of sodium hydroxide in Calanus finmarchicus C. Murray et al. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsag057
- Electrochemical seawater carbon capture for durable carbon storage: alkalinity modulation, interfacial ion transport and carbonate mineralization Q. Xie et al. https://doi.org/10.1039/D6EE03837A
- Alkalinity enhancement with sodium hydroxide in coastal ocean waters C. Wynn-Edwards et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31606-w
- Assessing the impacts of simulated ocean alkalinity enhancement on viability and growth of nearshore species of phytoplankton J. Oberlander et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-499-2025
- A cost-effective approach to water treatments in Bangladesh for domestic and agricultural uses with atmospheric pressure air plasma A. Begum et al. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622515.2025.2520583
- The carbon dioxide removal potential of cement and lime kiln dust via ocean alkalinity enhancement G. Flipkens et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-399-2026
- Removal of dissolved inorganic carbon from seawater for climate mitigation: potential marine ecosystem impacts G. Hooper et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1528951
- A high-resolution nested model to study the effects of alkalinity additions in Halifax Harbour, a mid-latitude coastal fjord A. Laurent et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-115-2026
- Surface area and Ω-aragonite oversaturation as controls of the runaway precipitation process in ocean alkalinity enhancement N. Suitner et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-3965-2026
- Early life stages of fish under ocean alkalinity enhancement in coastal plankton communities S. Goldenberg et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4521-2024
- Contribution of ultrafine particles to alkalinity in a limestone‐treated waterbody T. Schwemmer et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/lom3.70089
- Investigating the effect of silicate- and calcium-based ocean alkalinity enhancement on diatom silicification A. Ferderer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2777-2024
- The alkalinity generation potential of olivine and oyster shell for laboratory experiments: testing the effects of ocean alkalinity enhancement C. Miller & F. Pernet https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/adf0cd
- Dynamic and mechanistic evaluation of atmospheric seawater scrubbing for multicomponent biogas upgrading at pilot scale N. Raybut et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2026.179036
- An assessment of ocean alkalinity enhancement using aqueous hydroxides: kinetics, efficiency, and precipitation thresholds M. Ringham et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3551-2024
- Effects of pH-equilibrated ocean alkalinization on macro-benthic calcifiers: A mesocosm study from the port of La Spezia (Italy) D. Calvi et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2026.120198
- Review and syntheses: Ocean alkalinity enhancement and carbon dioxide removal through marine enhanced rock weathering using olivine L. Geerts et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-355-2025
- Natural analogs to ocean alkalinity enhancement A. Subhas et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-8-2023
- Technical note: Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement Pelagic Impact Intercomparison Project (OAEPIIP) L. Bach et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-3665-2024
- Assessment framework to predict sensitivity of marine calcifiers to ocean alkalinity enhancement – identification of biological thresholds and importance of precautionary principle N. Bednaršek et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-473-2025
- Electrodeposition of Carbon‐Trapping Minerals in Seawater for Variable Electrochemical Potentials and Carbon Dioxide Injections N. Devi et al. https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202400943
- Metrological concepts applied to Total Alkalinity measurements in seawater: reference materials, inter-laboratory comparison and uncertainty budget G. Capitaine et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/os-22-75-2026
- Field experiments in ocean alkalinity enhancement research T. Cyronak et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-7-2023
- Carbon fixation of a temperate plankton community in response to calcium- and silicate-based Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement using air-sea gas exchange measurements J. Schneider et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-137-2026
- Stability of alkalinity in the land-ocean transition zone: a geochemical CDR perspective for the Elbe River, Germany M. Tian et al. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/adeeab
- Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Spectroscopic Investigation of the Hydration, Dynamic, and Dielectric Properties of the {Na2CO3–H2O} System at 298.15 K across Various Concentrations A. Lahmidi et al. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcb.5c05381
- Seawater carbonate chemistry based carbon dioxide removal: towards commonly agreed principles for carbon monitoring, reporting, and verification P. Halloran et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1487138
- Assessing the technical aspects of ocean-alkalinity-enhancement approaches M. Eisaman et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-3-2023
- Novel field trial for ocean alkalinity enhancement using electrochemically derived aqueous alkalinity A. Savoie et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenve.2025.1641277
- Determining the net influence of biological processes on aqueous hydroxide-based ocean alkalinity enhancement: a mesocosm approach D. Fucich et al. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1652680
- Interactions between ocean alkalinity enhancement and phytoplankton in an Earth system model M. Seifert et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-5897-2025
- Alkalinity enrichment stimulates calcification and linear extension in Acropora cervicornis K. Cooke et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-44817-6
- Mineral formation during shipboard ocean alkalinity enhancement experiments in the North Atlantic M. Hashim et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-7149-2025
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement reduces silica ballasting during export due to amplified dissolution P. Suessle et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-23-4691-2026
- Effects of ocean alkalinity enhancement on plankton in the Equatorial Pacific J. Guo et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02248-7
- Monitoring, reporting, and verification for ocean alkalinity enhancement D. Ho et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-12-2023
- Ocean alkalinity enhancement approaches and the predictability of runaway precipitation processes: results of an experimental study to determine critical alkalinity ranges for safe and sustainable application scenarios N. Suitner et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4587-2024
- Perspectives on Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal from the Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network H. Findlay et al. https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2025.e308
- Comparative life cycle assessment of CO2 removal solutions, including ocean liming, based on different energy sources and carbon storage methods F. Campo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2026.104742
- Modelling considerations for research on ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE) K. Fennel et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-9-2023
- FIELD STUDY ON CARBON DIOXIDE UPTAKE OF WASTE LEACHATE AT COASTAL LANDFILL SITES K. NOSHO et al. https://doi.org/10.2208/jscejj.24-00178
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 28 Sep 2026
Short summary
Ocean alkalinity enhancement is a promising approach for long-term anthropogenic carbon dioxide sequestration, required to avoid catastrophic climate change. In this chapter we describe its impacts on seawater carbonate chemistry speciation and highlight pitfalls that need to be avoided during sampling, storage, measurements, and calculations.
Ocean alkalinity enhancement is a promising approach for long-term anthropogenic carbon dioxide...
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